Arrangements for Environmental Management

a) Global Efforts

Establishment of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1948.
Establishment of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) in 1961.
Publication of the IUCN Red Data List for endangered and critically endangered species since 1964.
Ramsar Convention signed on February 2, 1971, and effective from December 21, 1975.
Establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in 1972.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) signed on March 3, 1973, and effective from July 2, 1975.
Formation of the Brundtland Commission on Environment and Development in 1983, releasing the "Our Common Future" report in 1987.
Establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) by UNEP in 1988.
Basel Convention (1989) focusing on controlling hazardous waste, environmental safety, responsible management, and international cooperation.
Rio (Earth) Summit in 1992, adopting the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1992, with Nepal becoming a party in 1994.
Conference of the Parties (COP) meetings starting in 1995, with COP29 held in Baku, Azerbaijan.
Kyoto Protocol issued in 1997 to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, effective from 2005.
Paris Climate Agreement (2015): Limiting global temperature rise to 1.5-2°C above pre-industrial levels, achieving net-zero emissions by 2050, and requiring countries to submit and update Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for GHG reduction.
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2016-2030).

b) Constitutional Provisions

Commitment to sustainable development (Preamble).
Right to a clean environment (Article 30).
Policies on conservation, promotion, and utilization of natural resources, among others (Article 51(f)).
Measures for flood control, disaster risk reduction through early warning, preparedness, rescue, relief, and rehabilitation.
Prioritizing domestic investment for multi-purpose water resource development.
Promotion and development of renewable energy.
Inclusion of environment-related issues such as forests, wildlife, environment, water use, biodiversity, disaster management, and carbon services in the exclusive and concurrent powers of federal, provincial, and local governments.
Schedule-5: Policies and standards for water resource conservation and multi-purpose use, environmental management, national parks, wildlife reserves, wetlands, national forest policy, and carbon services.
Schedule-6: Forests, water use, and environmental management.
Schedule-7: Environmental protection, biodiversity, rivers, disaster management, and sanitation.
Schedule-8: Disaster management, environmental protection, biodiversity, basic health, and sanitation.
Schedule-9: Forests, wildlife, birds, water use, environment, ecology, biodiversity, and disaster management.

c) Planning Efforts

Sixth Plan: Environmental protection and land use policy.
Seventh Plan: Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
Eighth Plan: Sustainable development policy.
Fourteenth Plan: Internalization of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Sixteenth Plan: Biodiversity, climate change, and green economy.

d) Policy and Legal Provisions

1. Policies/Strategies

National Waste Management Policy, 2079 BS.
National Climate Change Policy, 2076 BS.
National Environment Policy, 2076 BS.
National Forest Policy, 2075 BS, and Nepal Forestry Sector Strategy, 2072 BS.
National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy, 2075 BS, and National Strategy for Disaster Risk Management, 2066 BS.
Flood Management Policy, 2064 BS.
National Wetlands Policy, 2069 BS.
Agricultural Biodiversity Policy, 2063 BS.
Hydropower Development Policy, 2058 BS.
Policy to establish and expand protected areas.

2. Legal Provisions

Forest Act, 2076 BS, and Regulations, 2079 BS.
Environment Protection Act, 2076 BS, and Regulations, 2077 BS.
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Act, 2074 BS.
Local Government Operation Act, 2074 BS.
Radioactive Substances (Use and Regulation) Act, 2077 BS.
Waste Management Act, 2068 BS, and Regulations, 2070 BS.
Electricity Theft Control Act, 2058 BS, Electricity Act, 2049 BS, Water Resources Act, 2049 BS, Nepal Electricity Authority Act, 2041 BS.
Buffer Zone Management Regulations, 2052 BS.
Conservation Area Management Regulations, 2053 BS.
National Trust for Nature Conservation Act, 2039 BS, Land and Watershed Conservation Act, 2039 BS.
National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 2029 BS.
Aquatic Life Protection Act, 2017 BS.
Private Forest Nationalization Act, 2013 BS.
Plastic Bag Ban Action Plan, 2078 BS.
Environment-Friendly Local Governance Framework, 2078 BS.
Provision for carbon trading in Rule 28 of the Environment Protection Regulations, 2077 BS.

e) Institutional Arrangements

Ministry of Forests and Environment.
Provincial and local governments.
Climate Change Management Division.
Department of Environment.
Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation.
Department of Forests and Soil Conservation.
Department of Plant Resources.
REDD Implementation Center.
Forest Research and Training Center.
Division Forest Offices.
Community Forest User Groups.
National parks, wetlands, buffer zones, and conservation areas.
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council.
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Executive Committee.
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Authority.
Disaster management committees at provincial, district, and local levels.
Ministries of Home Affairs, Defense, Finance, and Foreign Affairs.
Ministry of Energy, Water Resources, and Irrigation, Water and Energy Commission, Department of Electricity Development, Nepal Electricity Authority, Alternative Energy Promotion Centre, Department of Mines and Geology, etc.

f) Other Efforts

Designation of 23.39% of land as protected areas, 5% as wetlands, and 46.08% (6,797,257 hectares) as forest areas (approximately 6.8 million hectares).
Inclusion of 26 mammal species, 9 bird species, 3 reptile species, and hundreds of plant species in conservation lists (CITES).
President Chure Conservation Program.
Collaboration and coordination among federal, provincial, and local governments and user groups for biodiversity and environmental conservation in annual budgets.
Implementation of the Forest for Prosperity Project in Madhesh and Lumbini provinces with World Bank loans and grants.
Inclusion of SDG Goal 14 (conservation of underwater biodiversity) and Goal 15 (conservation of terrestrial biodiversity).
Early Warning Systems for disasters.
Project Bank prioritizing disaster-sensitive projects.
Mandatory Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for disaster risk and environmental impact evaluation.
Community participation through user committees and community forest groups.
Climate adaptation programs.
Disaster (earthquake)-resilient infrastructure with building codes and standards.
"Build Back Better" approach in reconstruction.
Prime Minister’s Disaster Relief Fund.
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Funds at local levels.
International assistance from UNICEF, World Bank, and other donors for disaster-sensitive programs.
Collaboration among federal, provincial, and local governments and user groups for sustainable development.
Nepal’s participation in over 20 international treaties and conventions, including the Ramsar Convention, Basel Convention, Convention on Biological Diversity, CITES, UNFCCC, and the Convention to Combat Desertification, with legal frameworks implemented to fulfill international commitments.
Alternative energy promotion programs, rural solar lighting distribution, and small-scale hydropower programs.

Ecosystem and Environmental Management

Environment

The environment encompasses the hydrosphere, lithosphere, and atmosphere, forming a system created by the interaction and interrelation between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components. It includes both natural and artificial environments.

Ecosystem

Coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935, an ecosystem is defined as the system resulting from the integration of all living and non-living factors of the environment. It is formed by the interrelation between the environment and living organisms, involving interactions between biotic and abiotic components. In Nepal, there are 118 types of ecosystems.

Components of an Ecosystem

Abiotic Components

Air, water, soil, minerals, light, heat, humidity, energy.

Biotic Components

Producers: Autotrophs (e.g., plants).
Consumers:
- Primary Consumers: Herbivores.
- Secondary Consumers: Omnivores.
- Tertiary Consumers: Carnivores.
Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.

Types of Ecosystems

1. Natural Ecosystem

a) Terrestrial Ecosystem

Tundra Ecosystem
Mountain Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
Grassland Ecosystem
Desert Ecosystem
Savanna Ecosystem

b) Aquatic Ecosystem

Marine Water Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
- Lentic: Ponds, lakes
- Lotic: Rivers, streams

2. Man-Made Ecosystem

Ecosystems created due to human activities such as deforestation, migration, and urbanization.

Food Chain/Cycle

The flow of energy through a sequence of organisms, from producers to consumers to decomposers.

Food Web

A complex network formed by the interconnection of two or more food chains.

Ecological Pyramid

Represents the distribution of mass, energy, or numbers (MEN) within an ecosystem.

Number: Population size at each trophic level.
Biomass: Total mass of organisms at each level.
Energy: Amount of energy transferred between levels.

In terrestrial ecosystems, all pyramids (number, biomass, energy) are upright. In aquatic ecosystems, the biomass pyramid is inverted, while number and energy pyramids remain upright.

Importance of Ecosystems

Facilitates the automatic flow, exchange, storage, and use of energy and matter (food chain).
Converts solar energy into other forms of energy.
Promotes sequential ecological development.
Maintains balance between biotic and abiotic components.
Ensures the survival of living organisms.
Conserves biodiversity and genetic resources.
Maintains Earth as a living planet.
Balances the environment.

Role of Ecosystems in Economic Development

Meets basic needs (food, shelter, clothing), contributing to 40% of the global economy and 80% of needs in developing countries.
Supplies raw materials for industries.
Acts as a mechanism for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Promotes ecotourism and preserves nature’s value.
Provides natural resources like food, herbs, and timber.
Operates food chains, food webs, biogeochemical cycles, and water cycles.
Offers spaces for study, research, and recreation.
Manages waste.
Conserves biodiversity.
Ensures sustainability in development.
Protects against water, food, and climate crises.
Purifies soil, water, and air, stores carbon, and reduces global warming.
Maintains Earth as a habitable, living planet.
Creates employment opportunities, reducing poverty and supporting economic growth.

Causes of Ecosystem Degradation

a) Natural Causes

Natural cataclysms.
Natural disasters: earthquakes, floods, landslides, inundation, droughts, etc.
Invasive species: 87 invasive plant species in Nepal, diseases, and pests (e.g., locusts, fall armyworm).

b) Human-Induced Causes and Impacts

Rapid population growth exerting pressure on natural resources.
Overexploitation of mines, minerals, and other resources, hindering sustainable use.
Deforestation causing habitat fragmentation and destruction.
Unplanned urbanization and industrialization leading to environmental pollution.
Uncontrolled migration and settlement development fragmenting agricultural land.
Overharvesting of herbs, posing conservation challenges.
Chemical fertilizers and pesticides threatening biodiversity.
Overgrazing causing ecological imbalances.
Increased greenhouse gas emissions leading to climate change and global warming.
Industrial gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) causing ozone layer depletion.
Nuclear arms race leading to atomic explosions.
Climate change increasing risks of water and food crises.
Illegal poaching and trafficking of wildlife and plants, and ineffective conservation leading to rarity and endangerment.

Impacts of Ecosystem Degradation

Loss of biodiversity.
Climate change.
Pollution.
Soil erosion.
Interruption of ecosystem services.
Disease outbreaks.
Food crises.
Displacement of human populations.
Increased natural disasters.
Disruption of local economies.

Measures to Mitigate Negative Impacts on Ecosystems

Effective implementation of environmental protection laws and institutional frameworks.
Population management and migration control.
Planned urbanization, industrialization, and waste/pollution management.
Afforestation and sustainable conservation.
Reducing the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
Lowering greenhouse gas emissions.
Emphasizing sustainable development and environmental protection.
Proper implementation of climate change mitigation, adaptation, and resilience (MAR) measures.
Adopting measures to control invasive species, diseases, and pests.
Enhancing public awareness and community empowerment/capacity building.
Developing partnerships with civil society, community organizations, media, and the international community.
Promoting research, study, and conservation education.

Interrelation Between Ecosystem and Development

Since the 1980s, the concept of sustainable development has highlighted the interrelation between ecosystems and development. The Brundtland Commission’s 1987 report, "Our Common Future," established that sustainable development can only be achieved through ecosystem conservation.

How Ecosystems Support Development

Provides resources.
Supplies industrial raw materials.
Ensures energy supply.
Supports the concept of a green economy.
Makes development environmentally friendly and sustainable.
Preserves Earth’s aesthetic value.
Helps achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Identifies development needs.
Provides space for development activities.

How Balanced Development Protects Ecosystems

Emphasizes environmental protection.
Ensures environmental sustainability.
Promotes biodiversity conservation.
Mitigates climate change impacts.
Focuses on conserving ecosystems, wetlands, and expanding national parks.
Promotes scientific utilization of environmental components: air, water, and land.
Protects terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Analysis of Ecosystems in Nepal

Nepal has 118 types of ecosystems: 10 in the Terai, 13 in the Siwalik hills, 52 in the mid-hills, 38 in the high mountains, and 5 in other regions.
46.08% of Nepal’s land is covered by forests, 23.39% is protected areas, and 5% is wetlands.
Nepal’s geographical diversity, ranging from 58 meters to 8,848 meters above sea level, contributes to ecosystem diversity.
As a water-rich nation, Nepal has a significant presence of aquatic life in its water resources.
Nepal is a party to over 20 international treaties, including the Ramsar Convention (1971), Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), and UNFCCC (1994).
Various constitutional, legal, and institutional arrangements support ecosystem conservation.
Ecosystems face degradation due to climate change, increasing natural disasters, ozone layer depletion, illegal poaching, wildfires, excessive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, unplanned industrialization and urbanization, invasive species, and habitat loss.
Weak implementation of constitutional, legal, policy, institutional, structural, and programmatic arrangements hinders effective ecosystem conservation.
Effective implementation of these arrangements, along with increased public awareness, can address challenges and enhance ecosystem conservation.

Measures to Address Negative Environmental Impacts

Effective implementation of existing constitutional and legal provisions.
Proper conservation of water resources.
Effective waste management.
Promoting renewable energy and efficient energy use.
Enhancing public awareness.
Promoting planned urban development.
Effective implementation of environmental protection and pollution control measures.
Establishing robust monitoring and evaluation systems.
Emphasizing green economy development.
Strengthening Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA).
Integrating environmental protection into policies, programs, and plans at all government levels.
Developing disaster-resilient projects and effective disaster management systems.
Promoting the importance of the environment through communication and media.
Collaborating with civil society and the private sector.
Strengthening partnerships with the international community.
Conserving and expanding forest areas.
Protecting biodiversity and ecosystems.
Adopting environmentally friendly development systems.
Enhancing government institutional capacity for effective regulatory roles.
Promoting community mobilization for environmental protection.

4.1 Ecosystem and Environmental Management