Public Management, Civil Service, and Bureaucracy: A Nepalese Perspective

Management

Management is defined as:

The attainment of organizational goals effectively and efficiently through planning, organizing, leading, and controlling corporate resources (men, money, machines, materials, and information).
The process of administering and coordinating resources to achieve organizational goals.
The coordination of all resources through planning, organizing, directing, and controlling to attain state objectives.
The art of getting things done through and with people in formally organized groups.

Features of Management

Organized activities
Existence of objectives
Relationship among resources
Working with and through people
Decision making
Goal-oriented
Universal/all-pervasive
Social process
System of authority

Four Aspects of Management

1. Planning

Determining objectives
Developing strategies
Coordinating activities

2. Organizing

Division of work
Development of procedures
Establishing direction and reporting systems
Determining decision-makers

3. Leading

Motivating employees
Communicating
Influencing employee behavior
Resolving conflicts

4. Controlling

Monitoring activities
Correcting weaknesses
Evaluating performance
Providing feedback

Public Management (Concept)

The concept of public management emerged from the recognition that private sector management practices are more effective and result-oriented than traditional public administration. It developed as an effort to improve traditional administrative methods, making them result-oriented, accountable, transparent, socially just, and participatory.

Public management is the systematic, economical, and effective operation of state-provided public services, development projects, social justice, and social security to deliver outcome-based services.

Theories like Woodrow Wilson’s Public Administrative Theory, Luther Gulick’s POSDCORB, and Max Weber’s Bureaucratic Theory have directly or indirectly contributed to this concept.

With the rise of privatization, liberalization, and globalization since the 1980s, the use of private sector managerial values and professional principles in public management led to the development of New Public Management (NPM). Since the 2000s, the New Public Service (NPS) concept has emphasized equitable governance based on justice and morality, with the state dedicated to citizen services.

Public Management (Introduction)

In general, the process of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling to achieve specific objectives in the public sector is called administration, while in the private sector, it is called management.

The term "administration" implies rigidity, process-orientation, hierarchy, and command-control style, whereas "management" suggests flexibility, result-orientation, minimal hierarchy, and collaborative, participatory work style.

Recently, successful private sector practices have been adopted in the public sector to enhance efficiency and effectiveness, leading to the use of management tools and methods and the term "public management" instead of "public administration."

Public management is related to achieving the country’s economic and social goals efficiently and effectively by maximizing the use of limited public resources.

In other words, public management is the coordinated, efficient, economical, and effective mobilization of available public resources to achieve specified public goals.

It is an alternative to traditional public administration, aiming to develop capable, effective, and result-oriented public organizations free from its weaknesses and inefficiencies.

Public Administration vs. Public Management

Public Administration	Public Management
Strict adherence to specified acts, rules, and procedures.	Flexible with rules and procedures for results.
Emphasizes process compliance.	Emphasizes achieving results.
Command and control-oriented work style.	Participatory and collaborative work style.
Pyramid, bureaucratic, mechanistic organization structure.	Flat, matrix, network organization structures.
Controls others through power and authority.	Facilitator, promoter, motivator to get work done.
Monopolistic mindset, does not prioritize competition.	Emphasizes competition with internal and external sectors.
Accountable to political leadership.	Accountable to service recipients.

Functions of Public Management

(A) Managerial Functions

Policy making
Planning and implementation
Organizing
Leadership and motivation
Control and evaluation

(B) Operational Functions

Providing peace and security
Regulation and control
Delivering public services
Administering justice
Development and construction works
Providing economic and social stability
Identifying and mobilizing resources
Promoting social welfare
Environmental protection
Capacity building and appropriate mobilization of private and non-governmental sectors

Public Management Skills

Conceptual Skills: Analyzing complex situations, developing appropriate concepts, and moving forward; ability to develop vision, plans, and strategies.
Human or Interpersonal Skills: Understanding individuals or groups, interacting with them, and motivating them to work; ability to work effectively in groups.
Technical Skills: Using tools, procedures, or techniques of specific fields.
Political Skills: Building power bases and establishing appropriate networks.
Decision-Making Capacity
Communication Skills
Skills for Managing Change
Skills for Managing Conflict
Negotiation Skills
Motivation Skills
Specialized Skills: Resource management, organization, coordination, information management, problem-solving.

Levels of Management

Lower Level (First Line): Front-line managers directly involved in delivering public services in coordination with assistant staff, interfacing directly with people.
Middle Management: Supervises and coordinates front-line personnel, coaches, mentors, and helps solve work-related problems; develops, analyzes, and recommends alternatives to top-level management.
Top-Level Management: Involved in decision-making, coordinating, controlling, and monitoring compliance.

Managerial Skills by Level

Top Level: Conceptual Skills
Middle Level: Human Relation Skills
Supervisory Level: Technical Skills

Principles of Public Management

1. Classical Approaches

(A) Scientific Management Theory

Using scientific methods for task performance, selecting workers objectively, providing training and incentives to increase production and productivity.

(B) Administrative Theory

Developing universal administrative principles to enhance efficiency, effectiveness, and economy.

(C) Bureaucratic Theory

Enhancing organizational efficiency and effectiveness through division of work, hierarchy of authority, formal employee selection, and impersonal task performance based on fixed rules.

2. Behavioral Approach

Emphasizing human aspects in organizations, addressing employees’ objectives, needs, interests, and problems, and aligning their efforts collectively toward organizational goals for efficiency and effectiveness. Includes human relations theory, organizational behavior, group dynamics, and motivation theories.

3. Modern Approaches

(A) Quantitative Theory

Developed post-World War II from the military, emphasizing the use of mathematical and statistical tools in management.

(B) Qualitative Theory

Developed in Japan in the 1950s, focusing on improving the quality of goods and services to enhance customer satisfaction. Includes quality circles, total quality management, continuous improvement, lean management.

(C) Process-Oriented Theory

Management as a cyclical and continuous process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling.

(D) System Theory

Organizations as open systems continuously interacting with the environment. Management processes inputs (raw materials, demands, pressures, feedback, data) through organizations, structures, procedures, technology, and employees to produce outputs (goods or services).

(E) Situational Theory

Organizations differ based on size, objectives, tasks, technology, and location. Universal principles applicable in all situations are not feasible; organization-specific methods and styles are practical.

4. Latest Theories/Concepts of Public Management

(A) New Public Management (NPM)

Introduced in the 1980s to develop a robust and capable public sector by adopting successful private sector managerial practices, transforming traditional public administration into public management.

Based on Principal-Agent Theory, Public Choice Theory, Contestable Market Theory, and Transaction Cost Theory.

Features of NPM:

Using private sector managerial methods in the public sector
Managerial decentralization: transferring public service delivery to autonomous institutions, NGOs, private corporations, or local levels
Using market and competition in public service delivery: outsourcing, service contracts, public-private partnerships, privatization
Introducing 3Es: Economy, Efficiency, Effectiveness
Introducing 3Ds: De-licensing, de-controlling, de-regulating
Focus on performance, results, and client satisfaction
Promoting autonomy and professionalism in the public sector
Downsizing organizational structure and staff

(B) New Public Service (NPS)

Since the 2000s, NPS emphasizes equitable governance based on justice and morality, with the state dedicated to citizen services. Focuses on serving citizens (not customers), prioritizing public interest, valuing citizenship over entrepreneurship, strategic thinking with democratic action, complex accountability, serving rather than steering, and valuing people over productivity.

(C) Good Governance

A participatory, transparent, accountable, and predictable governance system for managing public affairs.

(D) Responsive Governance

A governance system where the public sector or government is proactive and responsible toward citizens’ needs and problems.

(E) Network Governance

Managing public affairs through collaboration, partnerships, and co-production with public, private, and non-governmental actors.

Civil Service

Background of Civil Service

As old as the state itself, mentioned in ancient texts and histories. Developed as a state mechanism after the state took on public responsibilities. Existed in ancient China’s Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), Athens, and Rome’s city-states. In the Mughal Empire, it was called "Mansabdari."

Meaning and Definition

Civil service is a legally established, merit-based, neutral, impartial, professionally committed, and public-serving career system under the government’s executive, excluding military or police services. It is a permanent, service-oriented institution for delivering public services, comprising competitive individuals dedicated to the broader interests of the nation and its people.

It is a politically neutral, administratively capable, and public-service-dedicated permanent state mechanism, providing advice, information, expertise, policy analysis, implementation, and overall public administration. Also referred to as the "permanent government."

In Nepal, the Civil Service Act, 2049, and Regulations, 2050, provide the legal basis. According to Article 243(1) of Nepal’s Constitution, civil service includes all government services except military, police, armed police, and other services specified by law.

Section 3 of the Civil Service Act, 2049, lists ten services:

Nepal Economic Planning and Statistics Service
Nepal Engineering Service
Nepal Agricultural Service
Nepal Judicial Service
Nepal Foreign Service
Nepal Administration Service
Nepal Audit Service
Nepal Forest Service
Nepal Miscellaneous Service
Nepal Education Service

Section 4 specifies gazetted (special, first, second, third) and non-gazetted (first, second, third, fourth, fifth) ranks.

Features of Civil Service

Merit-based system
Legal basis for service
Job security
Defined career path
Professional group
Continuity
Group spirit
Non-military character
Defined benefits and salary scales
Politically value-neutral
Living constitution: a factor in making state systems dynamic and vibrant
Institutional state mechanism
Dedicated to public service
Permanent mechanism (also called permanent government)
Transparency, impartiality, and objectivity

Roles of Civil Service

Performing key state functions
Advising and consulting the government
Implementing laws
Assisting in policy formulation and implementation
Delivering public services
Acting as a communication link between government and citizens
Mobilizing resources
Maintaining institutional memory and continuity
Indicating development and change

Legal Basis/Formation of Nepal’s Civil Service

Basis for Civil Service Operations

Legal existence and recognition (influenced by US Spoils System, Pendleton Act 1883, Northcote-Trevelyan Report 1853, Civil Service Commission 1854, Japan’s Meiji Era 1868)
Political impartiality (Wilson’s principle)
Anonymity
Permanency of tenure
Clear operational procedures (due process)
Central agency for service operations (Public Service Commission)

Civil service adopts principles of efficiency, professionalism, and dignified public service.

Each country establishes legal bases for its civil service formation and operation:

Part 23 of Nepal’s Constitution provides for the Public Service Commission (PSC).
The PSC is tasked with conducting examinations to select suitable candidates for civil service positions.
Article 243(1) defines civil service as all government services except military, police, armed police, and other specified services.
Article 285 allows the Government of Nepal to form a federal civil service and other necessary federal services.
The Civil Service Act, 2049, establishes ten services, five groups, and nine ranks (gazetted and non-gazetted).
Nepal’s Constitution, PSC Act, 2066, and Civil Service Act, 2049, adopt theoretical bases for civil service.
Modern civil service is shifting from centralized to decentralized, internalizing private sector best practices, becoming participatory, competitive, and citizen-oriented, and moving toward global bureaucracy.
The Federal Civil Service Bill remains pending in parliament, while provinces are enacting their own civil service acts.

Key Aspects of Merit System

Recruitment/Selection

Selection based solely on merit (realistic standards)
Adequate publicity
Equal opportunity to apply
Absence of discrimination
Ranking by ability
Objectivity in selection

Civil service = Merit system

Post-Selection

Fairness in career development and opportunity distribution
Appropriate work environment
Capacity development and utilization system
Appropriate motivation and capacity-building processes
Appropriate renewal system

Values of Civil Service

Respect for democracy
Sensitivity to public concerns
Dedication to public service
Impartiality
Efficiency
Legality
Equality
Integrity
Responsibility
Transparency
Accountability
Justice

Seven Principles of Public Life

Probity
Zeal
Truth-speaking
Evidence-based
Consciousness to opportunity
Precaution
Loyalty

Development of Civil Service in Nepal

Post-Unification Period (1768–1846 CE)

Started with "Tharghar" (Pandey, Pant, Aryal, Khanal, Rana, Bohora).
No clear distinction between judicial, military, and civil service roles.
Appointments, transfers, promotions (pajani) based on the king’s discretion.
Employees’ duties determined by royal orders, compensated in cash or kind (land).

Rana Rule (1846–1951)

Tharghar replaced by Kunwar (Rana), Basnet, Thapa (only Rana remained dominant).
Administrative tasks managed through sanad and sawal.
Elite system for posts above badakaji for the general public.
No separation between civil and military administration.
Prime Minister (Shree 3) was the top civil service post.
Daura/hukumi system for justice delivery and administrative oversight.
Administrative organizations: Khadga Nishana (PM’s office), Muluki Khana (Finance Ministry), Munsi Khana (Foreign Affairs), Koshitoshkhana (Expenditure), Kumarichok (Audit), Jangi Adda, Bintipatra Nikasi Adda, Commandry Kitabkhana, Hajiri Goshwara, and local offices.
Examination syllabus for four and eleven passes, application council established but inactive.

Post-Democracy Period (1951–1960)

Civil service recognized as an independent entity.
Civil Service Act enacted and implemented.
PSC procedures implemented, merit-based testing started.
Central and local structures established.
Administrative procedures and budgeting system initiated.
Civil service established as a permanent mechanism.

Panchayat Era (1960–1990)

Administrative structure expanded through districts and zones.
Improved planning system.
Strengthening of PSC.
Service group arrangements.
Administrative reform efforts (via commissions and task forces).
Administrative decentralization.
Political orientation of administration.
Refinements in acts, laws, and policies.
Adoption of hope and fear in administration.

Post-Democracy Restoration (1990–2006)

Civil service reoriented to democratic ideals.
Made capable and active to face environmental challenges.
Reduced size of civil service.
Mobilized for capacity building of non-state actors.
Decentralization and delegation.
Improved relations between civil service and the public.

Post-People’s Movement II (2006–2015)

Lawmaking aligned with democratic values.
Positive discrimination and inclusion provisions.
Trade unionism for professional rights.
Formulation of civil service vision plan.
Efforts to develop civil service in line with federal restructuring.

Post-Constitution of Nepal (2015)

Civil service formed at all three federal levels.
Provincial PSCs started selecting employees for local and provincial levels.
Most provinces issued their Civil Service Acts.
Federal Civil Service Bill remained pending as the House term ended.

Administrative Reform Reports and Contributions to Civil Service

Buch Commission 1952

Members: M.N. Buch, K.P. Mathrani, S.K. Anand.
Recommended unifying scattered civil services.
Appointments based on PSC recommendations.
Salary and benefits review (per PSC suggestions).
Employee training.
Corruption investigation.
Reducing ministries from 17 to 11.
Reducing employee ranks from 15 to 4.
Appointing secretaries as administrative heads of ministries.

Administrative Reform Planning Commission 1956

Chair: PM Tanka Prasad Acharya, Secretary: Kul Shekhar Sharma.
No report but worked operationally.
Enacted Civil Service Act and Regulations 2013.
Established Public Administration Institute (O&M) for training.
Administrative division: 7 regions, 32 districts, 78 sub-districts, 165 blocks.
Staffing: 600 officers, 21,000 assistants.
Formed 9 services, started accounting and auditing, established Nepal Rastra Bank, initiated planning system.
Formed District Development Committees (chaired by ward hakim).
Established development committees and boards.

Administrative Reform Commission 1968 (Vedananda Jha Commission)

Formed civil service per Panchayat system.
Abolished old Gadi Gaunda, divided into 14 zones, 75 districts.
Adopted zone and district administration concepts.
Determined office procedures (work priorities, forms, formats).
Implemented job classification plan.
Reduced political appointments, emphasized PSC-based recruitment.
Need for employee code of conduct.
Strengthening PSC.
Formed National Planning Council.
Emphasized public corporation establishment.

Administrative Reform Commission 1975/76 (Dr. Bhesh Bahadur Thapa Commission)

Improved planning system.
Emphasized development-oriented administration.
Projects above NPR 50 million through autonomous boards.
Recognized need for surprise inspection system.
Emphasized central employee agency establishment.
Divided civil employees into officer, assistant, and executive/administrative classes.
Extra service provisions.
Decentralized fund management.

Administrative Reform Commission 1991 (Girija Koirala Commission)

First time defining government’s scope of work.
Reduced ministries to 18, employees from 100,000 to 7,000.
Improved planning system, adopted multi-actor system.
Recommended forming three additional services within administrative service.
Recommended three levels in civil service: high management, professional, assistant.
Introduced open recruitment system.
Abolished parcha system, secured civil service, introduced voluntary retirement.
Implemented job descriptions.
Defined roles of ministers and secretaries.
Recommended simplifying procedures, establishing Human Resource Development Council for training.

Administrative Reform Commission 2013

Contemporary perspective.
Service delivery effectiveness.
Use of information technology.
Civil service in federalism.
Planning system.

Changing Trends in Modern Civil Service

Shifting from centralized to decentralized.
From service provider to regulator (FMR role).
Becoming facilitative.
Internalizing private sector best practices.
Becoming participatory.
Promoting inclusivity and multiculturalism.
Becoming competitive.
Decreasing size and volume.
Citizen-participation oriented.
Increasing demand for performance commitment.
Breaking hierarchical chains.
Transcending local boundaries to global bureaucracy.

Concept and Background of Bureaucracy

Developed after the emergence of the state to assist rulers with groups and systems. Became a significant administrative mechanism for state will formation and implementation, later termed bureaucracy.

Bureaucracy is a structure in government or large organizations, managed and operated through rules, laws, and procedures, with defined task divisions, hierarchies, and relational chains.

Introduction to Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is the collective form of administrative mechanisms, structures, procedures, and employees in public administration. It is established to assist in public policy formulation, implement policies and programs, and maintain peace, security, order, and good governance. The term "bureaucracy" was first used negatively by French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay in 1745 (implying delay, red-tapism, self-interest, folly), but positively interpreted by German sociologist Max Weber, considered the father of bureaucracy.

Civil service, a merit-based, professional, neutral, and public-serving structure under the government’s executive (excluding military/police), constitutes a significant part of bureaucracy.

Characteristics of Ideal Bureaucracy (Max Weber)

Bureaucratic bodies organized hierarchically.
Each body has a defined scope of work.
Employees recruited based on ability and qualifications.
Defined salary and benefits for employees.
Employees serve as career professionals.
Clear work discipline.
Impartial and impersonal work environment.
No personal biases in duty performance.
Work records maintained.

Theoretical Characteristics of Bureaucracy

Cadre-based meritocracy
Hierarchical structure
Management by rules
Organization by functional specialty
Up-focused or in-focused mission
Purposely impersonal
Employment based on technical qualification
Continuous growth in staff (Northcote Parkinson’s Law)

Bureaucracy in Brief

Role distribution
Formalization of activities
Authority concentration

Levels of Bureaucracy

Bureaucratization: Modernization of the system.
High Bureaucratization: High structuring of activities and authority concentration.
Low Bureaucratization: Low structuring of activities and authority concentration.

Public Administration and Bureaucracy

Public administration is the organizational role of the government, delivering public services, strengthening civil society, and ensuring social justice. Bureaucracy is the style, concept, form, and procedure of public administration, often associated with its negative traits. As organizations expand, so does bureaucracy, existing as a behavior, style, and culture within public administration.

Civil Service and Bureaucracy

Civil service is the government’s core, merit-based, professional, trained, permanent, and salaried mechanism. Bureaucracy is a term used to describe, understand, and critique civil service. It is inherently embedded within civil service, present in all organizations, but civil service is a core government element.

Types of Bureaucracy

1. Guardian Bureaucracy

Acts as a caretaker for people’s welfare and security but often becomes a protector of elite classes or establishes itself as an elite class, turning into a ruling entity.

2. Caste Bureaucracy

Develops when recruitment is limited to specific population sections. Example: Nepal’s "Tharghar" during Prithvi Narayan’s era, where only certain classes accessed palace services, and during Rana rule, only Rana, Shah, Basnet, Thapa, Thakuri had access.

3. Patronage Bureaucracy

Based on the personal favor of rulers (“to the victor belong the spoils”). Example: US from Jefferson to Jackson (1828–1883), spoils system. Still seen in political appointments bypassing merit systems.

4. Merit Bureaucracy

Governed by objective standards, especially admission based on prescribed qualifications tested through written exams. Example: Post-1853 Northcote-Trevelyan Report in the UK, 1854 Macaulay Report in British India, 1883 Pendleton Act in the US, and Nepal from 1957 (PSC formed in 1951, exams from 1957).

5. Representative or Inclusive Bureaucracy

Emerged from 20th-century social awakening, aligning administrative structures with social structures. Equal opportunity followed by inclusive bureaucracy in the US/Europe. Special provisions for marginalized groups, castes, and genders, including positive discrimination and reservations. In Nepal, inclusive bureaucracy began post-2007 Civil Service Act amendments.

Generational Evolution of Bureaucratic Administration

First Generation: Pre-public administration era (Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli, pre-17th century).
Second Generation: Disciplinary concepts of Lorenz von Stein, Wilson, Weber (1880s onward).
Third Generation: Gulick, Urwick, Follett concepts, 1940s (post-Hoover Commission).
Fourth Generation: New Public Management and Al Gore’s report.
Fifth Generation: Post-Robert Denhardt’s New Public Service model, current era.

Strengths of Bureaucracy

Based on due process
Well-organized/systematic
Specialized
Rational
Clear division of work
Defined career and discipline
Impartial and bias-free role
Recorded/institutional memory
Based on checks and balances

Max Weber’s View on Bureaucracy Strengths:

Impersonality
Hierarchy
Competence
Merit system
Rule-based
Document-based
Political neutrality and impartiality
Continuity
Discipline and code of conduct
Formalization
Efficiency and professionalism
Specialization

Weaknesses of Bureaucracy

Bureaucratic Style

Highly centralized
Faceless officials
Distinct departmentalization
Inflexible, opposing common sense
Delays due to procedures
Complexity

Resulting in bureaucracy failing to be ideal and facing criticism.

Hierarchical tendency
Obsession with rules and procedures
Red-tapism
Poorly trained inefficiency
Goal displacement
Jurisdictional conflicts
Power hunger and money mongering
Ignoring time elements
Bureaucratic sabotage: rules ruling over human judgment and compassion

Burosis & Bureaupathology

Buck-passing
Excessive formality
Persistence
Conservatism
Egoism in positions
Self-service tendency
Procrastination
Unresponsiveness
Ruling attitude over people-oriented
Empire building
Corrupt nature
Pride in permanence and expertise
Indirect accountability
Opaque activities

Criticism of Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy avoids responsibility.

Oppositional Arguments

Denial
Inversion
Tradition
Policy problems

Delaying Tactics

Invisible clock
Lip service
Subversion
Research-study
Shelving

Faint-Hearted Implementation

Dilution
Tokenism
Compartmentalization
Window dressing

Characteristics, Criticisms, and Alternatives/Improvements of Bureaucracy

Characteristics	Criticisms	Alternatives/Improvements
Permanent service	Fails to work per political goals due to permanence, hindering desired service delivery.	Establish contract-based service delivery for faster implementation of political goals.
Hierarchy	Fails to make all members equally responsible due to hierarchical structure.	Adopt horizontal structures to make all members equally responsible.
Legal rigidity	Cites legal complexities to avoid public-oriented work.	Simplify legal barriers, execute sunset laws.
Neutrality	Fails to implement state policies under the guise of neutrality.	Develop fair, competitive administration instead of neutral.
Impersonality	Fails to take responsibility for tasks due to impersonal nature.	Deliver services transparently.
Fixed salary	No distinction between performers and non-performers, affecting performance.	Adopt performance-based payment systems.
Career development	Seniority-based career benefits reduce focus on performance.	Adopt competence-based career development.
Process-oriented	Neglects public tasks citing procedural non-compliance.	Simplify procedures, complete public tasks on time.
Government monopoly	Public lacks choice due to government monopoly.	Liberalize public services, allow private/NGO delivery.
Formalism	Fails to meet public needs due to excessive formalism.	Specialize, democratize, and make services people-oriented.

Despite criticisms, no definitive alternative to bureaucracy has been identified. The ultimate alternative is to address its weaknesses, making it people-oriented, productive, result-oriented, responsible, accountable, robust, capable, service-oriented, development-friendly, and democratic.

Questions for Practice

What is meant by public management? Discuss the difference between public management and public administration. (4+6=10)
Mention the scope and functions of public management and identify the major problems of public management in Nepal. (6+4=10)
Mention the latest concepts of public management and discuss their application in Nepal. (5+5=10)
Mention the basic characteristics of civil service and analyze to what extent these are found in Nepal’s civil service.
In the context of state restructuring, how should civil service management maintain its values? Present original arguments.
Mention the reasons for the development of the concept that bureaucracy needs an alternative, and provide a reasoned response on what such an alternative could be.
Why is bureaucracy criticized? Is there a practical alternative to bureaucracy? How?
How is bureaucracy an essential foundation for state systems and good governance? Provide a logical analysis.
What types of bureaucratic characteristics are found in Nepal’s civil service?
Analyze the contribution of the bureaucratic system in Nepal to development and meeting social expectations. Do you see scope for improvement?

3.5 Public management, civil service and bureaucracy