Distributive Justice and Inequality in Resource Allocation in Nepal
Background
The state serves as the guardian, leader, motivator, facilitator, coordinator, and guide for its citizens. A key responsibility of the state is to ensure social justice, with equitable resource allocation being an integral component. Fair distribution of social benefits is essential to prevent inequality, which can lead to marginalization. A weak state role exacerbates disparities, while equitable distribution is both a state duty and a citizen’s right, especially for taxpayers. The state must also honor its commitments to the global community.
State Capabilities
- Extractive Capability: Ability to generate resources (e.g., taxes, foreign aid).
- Regulative Capability: Enforcing rules and regulations.
- Distributive Capability: Equitable allocation of resources.
- Symbolic Capability: Promoting national identity and values.
- Responsive Capability: Addressing citizens’ needs and grievances.
- International Capability: Fulfilling global commitments.
Resources and Distributive Justice
Resources encompass Power, Resources, Opportunities, Goods, and Services (PROGS), including:
- State power and authority
- Financial resources (taxes, foreign aid)
- Plans and policies
- Education and capacity building
- Healthcare
- Responsibilities (positions, appointments, opportunities)
- Economic activities
- Regulatory mechanisms
- Identity and security provisions
- Human resources
- Welfare activities
- Physical and natural resources
- Intangible resources
- Promotional activities
- Employment and opportunities
- Information access
Distributive Justice: Ensures equitable and fair allocation of resources to all, using consistent methods, redistribution, and positive discrimination for disadvantaged groups. It considers merit, equity, equality, justice, capability, responsibility, access, need, and context to ensure resources reach targeted groups fairly.
Since state resources are limited while public needs are vast, distributive justice eliminates unfair practices, ensuring everyone receives a just share.
Basis for Resource Allocation
- Population size
- Geography
- Human Development Index (HDI)
- Work efficiency
- Competence
- Social justice
- Targeted groups and regions
- Service delivery conditions
- State capacity
- Need assessment
- Contribution to public welfare
- Cost-benefit analysis
- Mandatory vs. discretionary duties
- Overall state policies
Objectives of Resource Allocation
- Establish social justice
- Reduce inequality and discrimination
- Prevent marginalization
- Reduce conflicts
- Enhance mutual cooperation
- Create employment opportunities
- Promote balanced development through social harmony
- Mainstream, empower, and provide opportunities (MEO)
Methods of Resource Allocation
- Distributive
- Redistributive
- Compensatory
- Process-oriented
- Reformative
- Regulatory
- Equality-based (distributive)
- Equity-based (redistributive)
- Protective
- Restorative
Principles of Distributive Justice
- Absolute Principles: Establishing criteria, rules, and principles for fair allocation.
- Relative Principles: Flexible allocation based on context, needs, and discretion.
Approaches to Distributive Justice
- Equality-Based Method: Equal distribution of resources like roads, water, education, and health.
- Equity-Based Method (Redistributive): Targeted support for groups like senior citizens, single women, unemployed, disabled, and social security beneficiaries.
Concepts Guiding Resource Allocation
- Welfare state concept
- Democratic governance
- Social justice
- Good governance
- Humanitarian principles
- Human rights
- Responsibility and accountability
- Equal access and opportunities
- Empowerment
- Public interest
Methods of Resource Allocation
- Direct Allocation: Government programs, cash distribution, or investments (e.g., public enterprises, FDI arrangements).
- Direct Financial Arrangements: State mobilizing resources.
- Indirect Investment: Policy support without direct funding, creating an enabling environment.
- Service Delivery Arrangements: Establishing agencies for service provision.
- Payment for Services: Services provided in exchange for taxes.
- Opportunity Creation: Enabling access to opportunities.
- State Guarantees: Issuing passports, national IDs, vehicle plates.
Areas of Resource Allocation
- Infrastructure
- Human development
- Environmental protection
- Aesthetic promotion
- Service provision
- Regulation
- Recreational activities
- Emergency services
- Security management
Issues of Inequality and Marginalization in Resource Allocation
- Inequitable distribution of state resources.
- Persistent marginalization despite mainstreaming efforts.
- Misuse of allocated resources.
- Resources reaching unintended beneficiaries.
- Failure to deliver justice through resource allocation.
Areas of Inequality and Marginalization
Geographical/Provincial Inequality
| Region | Land Area | Population | Absolute Poverty Rate (Avg: 20.27%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Himalayan | 15% | 6.08% | 33% |
| Hill | 68% | 40.31% | 25% |
| Tarai | 17% | 53.61% | 20% |
Poverty and Human Development
- Human Development Index (HDI): 0.622 (145th globally, HDI Report 2025).
- Provinces Above National HDI Average (0.601): Bagmati, Gandaki.
- HDI Ranking (Ascending): Madhesh, Karnali, Sudurpashchim, Lumbini, Koshi, Gandaki, Bagmati.
| Province | Poverty Rate (Avg: 20.27%) | Literacy Rate (Avg: 76.2%) | HDI (Avg: 0.601) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Koshi | 17.19% | 79.7% | 0.580 |
| Madhesh | 22.53% | 63.5% | 0.510 |
| Bagmati | 12.59% | 82.1% | 0.661 |
| Gandaki | 11.88% | 81.7% | 0.618 |
| Lumbini | 24.35% | 78.1% | 0.563 |
| Karnali | 26.69% | 76.1% | 0.538 |
| Sudurpashchim | 34.16% | 76.2% | 0.547 |
Source: Nepal Living Standards Survey 2079/80, National Census 2078, Human Development Report 2020
Indicators of Inequality
| Indicator | Best | Worst | Source | Remark |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Poverty | Hill & Tarai (24.5%) | Himalayan (42.5%) | - | Nearly double |
| Poverty (District) | Kaski (4.5%) | Jajarkot (64.5%) | - | 16 times higher |
| Multidimensional Poverty | Koshi (15.5%) | Karnali (50.5%) | Multidimensional Poverty Index 2017 | 3.25 times higher |
| Absolute Poverty | Gandaki (11.9%) | Sudurpashchim (34.2%) | Living Standards Survey 2079/80 | - |
| Financial Transfers | Karnali (16%) | Gandaki (12.5%) | Budget 2082/83 | Based on socio-economic indicators, development costs, and needs |
| Literacy | Bagmati (82.1%) | Madhesh (63.5%) | Census 2078 | - |
| HDI | Bagmati (0.661) | Madhesh (0.510) | HDI 2020 | - |
Opportunities from Provincial Inequality
- Federal system establishment
- Resource allocation across seven provinces
- Autonomous rights lists
- Fundamental rights
- Increased awareness
- Remote area development programs
- Reservations for nine backward districts
Ethnic Inequality and Marginalization
- Endangered ethnic groups: 10
- Highly marginalized ethnic groups: 12
- Marginalized ethnic groups: 21
- Disadvantaged ethnic groups: 15
- Advanced ethnic groups: 2
- Minority ethnic groups (<0 .5="" 115="" 2078="" ational="" census="" li="" population="">
Causes of Ethnic Inequality
- Caste-based hierarchy
- State policies (e.g., one language, one attire)
- Multidimensional discrimination
- Social exclusion
- Lack of inclusivity
- Illiteracy
- Inequality
- Poverty
- Ineffective targeted programs
Ethnic Inequality in Nepal
Education
| Group | Literacy Rate (%) |
|---|---|
| National Average | 76.2 |
| Non-Dalit | 77.6 |
| Dalit | 67.4 |
| Hill Dalit | 75.7 |
| Madhesi Dalit | 51.9 |
School Access (5-25 years):
- Non-Dalit: 7.1%
- Dalit: 13.1%
- Madhesi Dalit Women: 31.6%
Employment and Income
| Group | Extreme Poverty (%) | High Wealth (%) |
|---|---|---|
| Non-Dalit | 18 | 22 |
| Dalit | 36 | 6.2 |
Healthcare
- Madhesi Dalits lag in maternal and child health services.
- Child mortality among Dalits is nearly double the national average.
- Dalit children have lower access to vaccinations and primary healthcare.
Political Representation
| Dalit Population | House of Representatives |
|---|---|
| 13.1% | 5.81% (16 Dalit MPs, only 1 directly elected) |
Proportional representation has not been achieved.
Land Ownership
- Madhesi Dalits: ~44% landless
- Hill Dalits: ~23% landless
- Dalits own smaller land holdings compared to other groups.
Gender Inequality and Marginalization
Discrimination and inequality prevent women from entering the development mainstream.
Status of Women in Nepal
| Indicator | Value |
|---|---|
| Population | 51.02% |
| Literacy Rate (National: 76.2%, Male: 83.6%) | 69.4% (Census 2078) |
| Literacy Rate (National: 77.4%) | 70.1% (Living Standards Survey 2079/80) |
| Political Representation (House of Representatives, 275) | 33.1% (91 women) |
| Provincial Assemblies | 33.3% |
| Local Level | 41.21% |
| Property Ownership (House or Land) | 23.8% |
| Property Ownership (House and Land) | 11.8% |
| Civil Service Participation | 29.2% |
| Labor Force Participation (Male: 53.8%) | 26.3% |
Causes of Gender Inequality
- Patriarchal state system
- Gender-discriminatory policies
- Superstitions
- Religious/cultural suppression
- Harmful customs and traditions
- Oppression
- Nominal gender justice
- Inadequate empowerment
Urban-Rural Inequality and Marginalization
Caused by unequal government investment and flawed policies.
| Area | Population | Poverty Rate | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Urban | 66.17% | 18.14% | National Statistics Office |
| Rural | 33.83% | 24.66% | Nepal Living Standards Survey 2079/80 |
Causes of Urban-Rural Inequality
- Unscientific/unbalanced development strategies
- Inadequate implementation
- Lack of coordination in targeted programs
- Concentration of programs in urban areas
- Neglect of rural development
- Geographical remoteness
- Discriminatory investment/policies
Challenges in Resource Allocation in Nepal
- Lack of scientific distribution methods
- Scattered settlements
- Failure to implement planned programs
- Rising public expectations
- Limited resources
- Widespread corruption
- Political pressure/instability
- Biased pressure groups
- Geographical challenges
- Unreliable baseline data
- Unclear state vision
- Constituency-driven tendencies
Scope of Distributive Justice
- Global interest in specific resources
- Basic needs fulfillment
- Globalization of democracy
- Establishment of an international society
- Expanding trade and commerce
- Mutual cooperation (sustainable development, climate change)
- Compensatory justice
Outcomes of Distributive Justice
- Reduced gap between haves and have-nots
- Increased social harmony
- Enhanced public trust in the state
- Reduced ethnic discrimination
- Narrowed urban-rural divide
- Increased social happiness
- Resolution of basic problems
- Greater sense of ownership toward the state
Measures to Address Inequality and Marginalization in Nepal
Constitutional Provisions
Preamble: Commitment to ending all forms of discrimination and oppression.
Fundamental Rights:
- Article 16: Right to live with dignity
- Article 17: Right to freedom
- Article 18: Right to equality
- Article 24: Right against untouchability and discrimination
- Article 38: Women’s rights
- Article 40: Dalit rights
- Article 41: Senior citizens’ rights
- Article 42: Right to social justice
- Article 43: Right to social security
Directive Principles:
- Commitment to gender equality, proportional inclusion, participation, and social justice in all sectors.
- Article 50(1): Ending all forms of discrimination and exploitation.
- Article 51(c): Development policies.
- Article 51(chha): Natural resource conservation, promotion, and use.
- Article 51(ja): Basic needs policies.
- Article 51(jha): Social justice and inclusion policies.
Constitutional Bodies
- Article 248: National Human Rights Commission
- Article 250: National Natural Resources and Fiscal Commission
- Article 252: National Women Commission
- Article 255: National Dalit Commission
- Article 258: National Inclusion Commission
- Article 261: Indigenous Nationalities Commission
- Article 262: Madhesi Commission
- Article 263: Tharu Commission
- Article 264: Muslim Commission
Legal Provisions
- Civil Service Act, 2049 and Rules, 2050 (Reservations):
- Women: 33%
- Indigenous/Janajati: 27%
- Madhesi: 22%
- Dalit: 9%
- Disabled: 5%
- Backward Areas: 4%
- Age limit for service entry: 40 years
- Probation period: 6 months
- Maternity and paternity leave
- Good Governance (Management and Operation) Act, 2064 and Rules, 2065
Institutional Arrangements
- Relevant ministries
- Social Welfare Council
- Constitutional commissions
- Non-governmental sector
- Poverty Alleviation Fund
Programmatic Arrangements
- Targeted programs
- Positive discrimination programs
- Empowerment programs
- Special area development programs
- One Village, One Product
- Priority to Nepali products
- Commercial agriculture
- Youth self-employment programs
- Subsidies, incentives, and grants
- Reservation programs
- Childcare allowances
National Policies
- Poverty alleviation
- Social justice
- Women empowerment
- Gender-responsive budgeting
- Upliftment of backward classes
- Remote area development
- Balanced development
- Mobile service delivery
Conclusion
Equitable resource allocation is crucial for social justice, reducing inequality, and preventing marginalization. Nepal faces challenges like unscientific distribution, corruption, and political instability, but constitutional, legal, and programmatic measures aim to address these issues. By strengthening policies and implementation, Nepal can foster a just, inclusive, and equitable society.