Political Structure of Governance
The political structure comprises institutions and mechanisms focused on policy making, the patterns and processes by which political power is exercised, and the constitutional rules that determine who exercises power and how.
Key elements of the political structure
- Form of the state (unitary, federal, confederal)
- Form of government (presidential, parliamentary, semi-presidential)
- Distribution of powers among branches (separation, checks & balances)
- Electoral and representation systems (majority, proportional, mixed)
- Party system (non-partisan, one-party, two-party, multi-party)
Forms of the State
The territorial and constitutional distribution of sovereignty determines a state's form. Common types are:
Unitary
All sovereign power is concentrated at the center. Laws and institutions are uniform across the territory, though powers can be delegated to local bodies through decentralization.
Strengths: legal and administrative uniformity, fewer inter-governmental conflicts, easier decision-making, cost efficiency.
Weaknesses: distance between citizens and central government, weaker local responsiveness, difficulty accommodating diversity, risk of central domination.
Federal
Sovereignty is constitutionally divided between the central government and subnational units (states/provinces). It combines self-rule and shared-rule with autonomy, division of powers, and cooperation.
Strengths: brings government closer to people, fosters participation, promotes inclusion, uses local resources effectively.
Weaknesses: potential duplication of roles, inter-governmental competition, higher administrative costs, risk of elite capture at subnational levels.
Confederal / Confederation
A confederal arrangement is a loose union of fully sovereign states that cede only limited powers to a common body. Decision-making may be slow and central enforcement weak.
Types of Federalism
- Centripetal (centralizing) vs. Centrifugal (decentralizing)
- Dual (clear separate jurisdictions) vs. Cooperative (shared responsibilities)
- Symmetric (equal powers across units) vs. Asymmetric (different powers for different units)
Why Nepal Adopted Federalism
Key bases for Nepal’s federal design include identity factors (ethnic/communal, linguistic, cultural, geographic, historical) and capacity factors (economic linkages, infrastructure, natural resources, administrative feasibility).
Forms of Government
How executive power is organized determines the government's form. The principal models are:
1. Presidential (e.g., United States)
- President is directly elected and is both head of state and government.
- Strong separation of powers; ministers need not be members of the legislature.
- Pros: political stability, decisive executive, direct electoral legitimacy.
- Cons: risk of weak accountability, potential for authoritarian drift, harder leadership transfer.
2. Parliamentary (e.g., United Kingdom)
- Executive emerges from the legislature; Prime Minister and cabinet are collectively responsible to parliament.
- Greater interdependence between executive and legislature; stronger mechanisms for legislative oversight.
- Pros: stronger checks on executive excess, easier to remove ineffective governments, responsible opposition.
- Cons: party dominance, possible instability with fragmented party systems, risk of frequent government changes in coalition contexts.
3. Semi-presidential / Mixed (e.g., France)
- Executive powers divided between a directly elected president and a prime minister who enjoys parliamentary support.
- Can balance the strengths of presidential and parliamentary systems but may create institutional ambiguity and power rivalries.
Separation of Powers & Checks and Balances
Two main models exist:
- Separation of powers: Clear division among legislature, executive and judiciary; typical in presidential systems.
- Checks and balances: Mutual controls where branches can limit each other (e.g., no-confidence votes, vetoes, judicial review).
Electoral / Representation Systems
Representative systems commonly include:
Majority System (First Past The Post)
- Single winner per constituency; candidate with most votes wins.
- Drawback: may exclude minority voices and distort proportionality.
Proportional Representation (PR)
- Seats allocated according to each party’s share of the vote, promoting wider representation.
- Variants: List PR (open vs. closed list) and Single Transferable Vote (STV).
- Advantages: inclusive representation, less wasted votes, better minority inclusion.
- Disadvantages: may encourage fragmentation, make majority governments harder to form, and increase party control over candidates.
Mixed Systems
Combine majoritarian and proportional elements to capture the benefits of both. Nepal uses a mixed system (e.g., combination of FPTP and PR seats in legislative bodies).
Party Systems
Party systems vary: non-partisan, one-party, two-party, multi-party. A multi-party environment with legal freedom to register parties is typical of democratic systems.
Nepal’s Political Structure (Snapshot)
- Form of state: Federal democratic republic.
- Form of government: Parliamentary system — Prime Minister and Council of Ministers hold executive power; President is largely ceremonial.
- Power distribution: Separation among legislature, executive and judiciary with principles of balance and mutual relations.
- Electoral system: Mixed — both direct (majoritarian) and proportional representation to promote inclusive democracy.
- Principal organs: President & Vice-President; Prime Minister & Cabinet; Federal Parliament & committees; Judiciary (Supreme, High and District Courts); Provincial councils and local councils; Election Commission and registered political parties.
Problems in Nepal’s Political Structure
- Occasional disputes over roles between the ceremonial head of state and the head of government.
- Interference or jurisdictional clashes reported between legislature and judiciary.
- Ambiguities in separation of powers and parliamentary conventions.
- Weak internal party democracy and unhealthy party competition focused on power rather than programmatic governance.
- Shortcomings and distortions in the implementation of proportional representation.
Administrative Structure of Governance
The administrative structure comprises the institutions and mechanisms tasked with implementing public policies made by the political structure: primarily the executive and its ministries, departments, and subnational offices, as well as independent constitutional organs and security bodies.
Principles of Administrative Structure
- Chain of command: Clear lines of authority and reporting.
- Span of control: Reasonable supervisory ratios for effective oversight.
- Centralization vs. decentralization: Clarity on where decision authority rests.
- Specialization: Division of tasks into distinct roles.
- Formalization: Written rules and procedures guiding officials.
- Departmentalization: Grouping similar activities into units or departments.
- Non-fragmentation: Assigning a task to a single unit where feasible.
- Non-duplication: Avoiding overlapping mandates among agencies.
- Homogeneity: Avoiding heterogeneous tasks within a single administrative unit.
- Additionally: discipline, ethics, transparency and accountability are fundamental.
Nepal’s Administrative Structure (Outline)
- Three tiers: Federal, seven Provinces, and 753 local units.
- Offices of the President & Vice-President, Prime Minister & Council of Ministers.
- Three-tier judiciary: District, High and Supreme Courts.
- Various constitutional bodies, ministries, departments, security agencies, commissions and provincial/local offices.
Problems in Nepal’s Administrative Structure
- Poor alignment between workload and organizational design.
- Widespread overlapping and duplication of functions across agencies.
- Institutions without meaningful tasks persist, creating unnecessary budgetary burdens.
- Slow or inadequate organizational reform to keep pace with changing needs.
- Weak communication and coordination across organizations and levels of government.
- Shortcomings in institutional discipline, ethics, transparency and accountability.